The Roots of Resilience

The Roots of Resilience examines governance from the ground up in the world's two most enduring electoral authoritarian or "hybrid" regimes—Singapore and Malaysia—where politically liberal and authoritarian features are blended to evade substantive democracy. Although skewed elections, curbed civil liberties, and a dose of coercion help sustain these regimes, selectively structured state policies and patronage, partisan machines that effectively stand in for local governments, and diligently sustained clientelist relations between politicians and constituents are equally important. While key attributes of these regimes differ, affecting the scope, character, and balance among national parties and policies, local machines, and personalized linkages—and notwithstanding a significant change of government in Malaysia in 2018—the overall pattern in these countries confirms the importance of these dimensions. These attributes tend to habituate citizens to the system in place, making meaningful change in electoral mobilization and policymaking more difficult. The authoritarian acculturation contributes to the durability of both regimes, and is stronger in Singapore than in Malaysia due to weaker party competition and party–civil society links. High levels of authoritarian acculturation, which enhance the political benefits for parties and politicians based on what they provide their constituents, explain why electoral turnover alone is insufficient for regime change.